History of Adult Education: Late 1990s-2000s

 History of Adult Education: Late 1990s-2000s

Tazia Williams

Ball State University

Name	Commented On
Tazia Williams	Jacob Gretencord | Group 4 La Tanya Robinson | Group 5

Social Background

Adult education is a well established concept that has evolved overtime. The mid 1990s through the early 2000s was a period full of rapid technological advancement, innovation, fear, uncertainty, as well as political and economical agnst within the United States. Within the first decade of the 21st century, America was able to overcome terrorist attacks (9/11), natural disasters (hurricane katrina), and a recession while simultaneously remaining dedicated to education reform and technological advancement. Technology as everyone knew it was shifting and becoming more accessible in schools and homes. This led to an overall increase in participation of vocational programs, employee training, and educational opportunities. The newfound access to technology had a positive impact on adult education as it was used as a tool to forge education forward. Baby Boomers and millennials were pursuing higher education while reaping the benefits of new kinds of technology, concepts, and devices. 

Millennials began to arrive on college campuses from the late 1990s through the early 2000s. Blackboard began to be used on various college campuses, while improved instant messaging platforms such as: AIM and MSN sustained popularity making it easier to communicate and learn informally from one another. The emergence of social media also allowed the public to stay connected. Individuals began to infiltrate workforces and participate in more vocational/work-related training due to their priviness to technology, while other participants in the adult education journey were either behind the curve with little interest in working to learn technology or following closely behind millennials. 

Educational interest and opportunities in the first decade of the 21st century began to increase. Access to learning, technology, employment opportunities, and community organizations began to be commonly afforded to individuals of all ages causing participation in educational programs to increase.  Despite a 22% increase in adult education participation in vocational programs, the Department of Education reduced the funding by 37%. This then led to an increase in private organizations offering additional educational opportunities. Education was viewed by many as a tool used to stimulate and boost the economy. Political leaders were dedicated to education reform along with providing safe environments for scholars. Acts of terrorism were prominnent and led to scholars feeling unsafe in their learning environments. The Columbine High School massacre and 9/11 occured and played a major role in establishing a new set of standards by which educational institutions were governed. The early 2000s consisted of continuous learning (both formal and informal)  and adaptation from adults everywhere. Society’s expectations along with the political, economic, and social climate, as well as what was considered the norm was constantly evolving during this time: i.e. the shift from landlines to cell phones, dial-up internet to wifi, in person learning environments to e-learning, VCRS to DVDS, floppy discs to CD’s, and cd players/radios to bluetooth connectors all happened within a short range of time. Informal learning was constantly being applied whether it was conscious or subconsciously. The early 2000s was an amazing time for growth in adult education and radical philosophy. Autonomy was given to individuals with how and where they would continue to learn.

Highlights

As time progressed and women and young adults alike gained more freedom while transitioning into more prominent roles in society, the desire and emphasis for higher educational learning rose as well.  During this time the torch was being passed from former impeached president Bill Clinton to George W. Bush. Despite his faults Clinton was dedicated to investing in education and schools in order to demand more from them. Higher standards were set, technological investments were made, and an increase in teachers in order to reduce class sizes for the benefit of the students occured. These were all efforts made prior to Clinton’s exit from office in 2001, however they had a positive impact on education for the decade to come.

In efforts to forge education forward, former President Clinton passed the HOPE Scholarships and Lifetime Learning Tax credits. The HOPE Scholarship was designed to make the first two years of college available by dispensing a tax cut of up to $1,500 for the first two years of college. The scholarships were said to have helped approximately 10 million Americans by the year of 1999 (Edmund Sass, 2020). 

The Workforce Investment Act (P.L. 105-220; 1998) was enacted in 1998 by President Clinton and essentially transformed the direction and support granted to adult education in the United States. The Workforce Investment Act consisted of five titles: Workforce Investment Systems, Adult Education & Literacy, Workforce Investment-Related Activities, Rehabilitation Act Amendment of 1998, and General Provision (U.S. Department of Education,  2013).  This act essentially tethered the success of education and employment programs with the economic needs of the country.  Wirst, Choy, and Gerald (2002) found that participation in learning activities increased from 38 percent of those in the population age 18 or older in 1991 to 50 percent in 1999.

To address the public's apprehensions regarding safety, an independent national campaign was created by Clinton in 1999 to address the issues of youth violence in along with the previously passed Gun-Free Schools Act. These were put into place in attempts to reassure scholars that institutions were a safe space. 

The No Child Left Behind Act went into effect in 2002. This act focused on excellence in learning for primary and secondary education. This act reshaped how institutions viewed and used data and mainly focused on the educational readiness of students in primary and secondary education. 

Although leaps and bounds in education’s progress were being made, many citizens were upset with the effects affirmative action had in the educational setting. Proposition 209 (California Civil Rights Initiative) was passing in 1996 banning that affirmative action from taking place in the education settings. This had a massive effect on people of color and decreased the admission status to prestigious colleges by fifty-five per cent. (Hua Hsu, 2018).

Influential Factors

As time progressed and the social norms began to shift so did the view on education. Freire is responsible for the modern radical movement of adult education that began in the early 1960s. Freire believed that education was a political process, and that educational institutions could be used as tools to benefit individuals’ values and beliefs. This concept was used in attempts to reshape society through education, knowledge, and advocating for social change. Freire’s theories have contributed to adult/community education worldwide. Research studies and Freire’s pedagogy provided a structure for which training programs should be based (Nel, 2014). Paulo was vital in shifting the role of teacher and students. He bypassed the banking method and helped create a relationship that was reciprocal to both students and teachers (Diaz, 2018). Many of these methods have been adapted in today’s educational structure.

Implications

Based on the information I’ve gathered during this time frame several changes to adult education were being made. The role and responsibilities of teachers began to shift from a dictator shift to a shared partnership with the scholar. Technology allowed for some of the responsibility and other advancements allowed for a wider variety of learning. The access of information was no longer limited to textbooks and teachers' knowledge. The rapid availability and actress to the Internet played a massive role in expanding informal and formal education. Social media also expanded the ability for citizens to connect and use others as resources. Many of the policies put into place in the nineties had a positive effect on Gen Y and their educational experiences as well as the generations to come. As technology continues to advance and education continues to be used as a tool to boost the economy adult learners must be ready and willing to adapt. The early 2000s was a decade of technological growth that have had a substantial impact on how the public navigate society and learn. As we move forward, the need for higher education is continuous. The trajectory of the educational paths society has been willing to educate individuals upon has expanded greatly. This is an effort we must take advantage of as we continue to create and develop new educational programs, training, education reform, and curriculum to plunge the adult learner forward. 

Social Background	Terrorist Attacks Technological Advancements Social Media Developments Natural Disasters
Highlights	The Workforce Investment Act No Child Left Behind California Civil Rights Initiative HOPE Scholarships and Lifetime Learning Tax Credit Technology
Influential Factors	Paulo Freire Radical educational philosophy
Implications	Technology and education reform was used as a way to boost the United States economic productivity. The shift in the “teacher vs. scholar” dynamic should be noted. Previous policies i.e. The Workforce Investment Act has a positive effect on adult education and it’s advancement in the long run.

References

Adult Education and Family Literacy Act of 1998. (2013, September 17). Retrieved September 17, 2020, from https://www2.ed.gov/policy/adulted/leg/legis.html

The Clinton-Gore Administration A Record of Progress. (2001). Retrieved September 17, 2020, from https://clintonwhitehouse5.archives.gov/WH/Accomplishments/crime.html

Diaz, K. (2018). Paulo Freire. Retrieved September 17, 2020, from https://iep.utm.edu/freire/

Hamil-Luker, J., & Uhlenberg, P. (2002, November 01). Later Life Education in the 1990s: Increasing Involvement and Continuing Disparity. Retrieved September 17, 2020, from https://academic.oup.com/psychsocgerontology/article/57/6/S324/669659

N. L. (n.d.). Paulo Freire (1921–1997) - Conceptual Tools, Philosophy of Education, Criticism. Retrieved September 17, 2020, from https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1998/Freire-Paulo-1921-1997.html

Nel, H. (2014). The evaluation of a training programme based on paulo freire's views on community practice: A south african example. Retrieved September 17, 2020, from http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-80542014000300003

Rogers, N. (2020, September 17). ." Encyclopedia of Recreation and Leisure in America. . Encyclopedia.com. 11 Aug. 2020 . Retrieved September 17, 2020, from https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/adult-education-earlier

Sass, E. (2020). American Educational History: A Hypertext Timeline. Retrieved September 17, 2020, from http://www.eds-resources.com/educationhistorytimeline.html

U. (2013). Improving Adult Employment and Training, 1998-2000—The Workforce Investment Act. Retrieved 2020, from https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/Adult_Ed_History_Report.pdf

Wirt, J., Choy, S. P., Gerald, D., Provasnik, S., Patrick, R., Watanabe, S., . . . Livingston, A. (2002). The condition of education 2000. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics.